A team of international researchers has uncovered the long-debated origins of Egypt's Karnak Temple, revealing how one of the ancient world's largest religious complexes rose from the waters of the Nile more than 4,000 years ago.
The new study, published Oct. 6 in Antiquity, is the most comprehensive geoarchaeological survey ever conducted at Karnak. It sheds fresh light on when the temple was first built, how its landscape evolved, and why its sacred location may have been chosen.
Researchers found that the sprawling complex -- now a UNESCO World Heritage site that attracts millions of visitors each year -- began on what was once a small island within the Nile floodplain. Over centuries, this island grew into the monumental heart of ancient Thebes, the religious capital of Egypt.
"This new research provides unprecedented detail on the evolution of Karnak Temple, from a small island to one of the defining institutions of Ancient Egypt," said Dr. Ben Pennington, lead author of the study and visiting fellow in geoarchaeology at the University of Southampton.
The project was led by Dr. Angus Graham of Uppsala University, with contributions from researchers at the University of Southampton. The team analyzed 61 sediment cores taken from within and around the temple and examined tens of thousands of ceramic fragments to reconstruct the site's early history.
Their findings reveal that, before approximately 2520 B.C., the area was frequently submerged by the Nile's powerful floods, rendering it unsuitable for permanent settlement. The earliest occupation began during Egypt's Old Kingdom (c. 2591-2152 B.C.), as the floodwaters gradually receded and new land emerged. Pottery fragments dating between 2305 and 1980 B.C. support this timeline.
The the columns of the Great Hypostyle Hall in Karnak Temple complex in Luxor, Egypt 🇪🇬
The Karnak Temple complex was a major religious center in ancient Thebes, which was the capital of ancient Egypt. Construction on the complex began around 2000 BC, and continued for... pic.twitter.com/RazAOFgFvT
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"The age of Karnak Temple has been hotly contested in archaeological circles, but our new evidence places a temporal constraint on its earliest occupation and construction," said Dr. Kristian Strutt, a co-author from the University of Southampton.
The study shows that shifting river channels carved out paths to the west and east, creating a natural island of high ground -- an ideal foundation for the temple's first structures. Over time, the channels drifted apart, allowing the vast complex to expand.
Abu Simbel - The Great Temple of Ramses II (r. 1279-13 BC), now located in Aswān muḥāfaẓah (governorate), southern Egypt 🇪🇬
The four colossal statues of Ramses in front of the main temple are spectacular examples of ancient Egyptian art. Carved out of a sandstone cliff on the... pic.twitter.com/KIcqEcbZy4
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Researchers were particularly surprised to discover that the eastern river channel, long dismissed as hypothetical, was not only real but possibly larger than the western one, which had been the main focus of earlier studies.
"The river channels surrounding the site shaped how the temple could develop and where," said Dr. Dominic Barker, another co-author from Southampton. "We also see how Ancient Egyptians shaped the river itself, through the dumping of sands from the desert into channels, possibly to provide new land for building, for example."
This reimagined landscape bears striking similarities to Egyptian creation myths. Old Kingdom texts describe the creator god rising from "the lake," symbolizing land emerging from water. The island beneath Karnak is the only known elevated area once surrounded by water in the region.
"It's tempting to suggest the Theban elites chose Karnak's location for the dwelling place of a new form of the creator god, 'Ra-Amun', as it fitted the cosmogonical scene of high ground emerging from surrounding water," Pennington said.
During the Middle Kingdom (c. 1980-1760 B.C.), this belief deepened. Texts describe a "primeval mound" rising from the "Waters of Chaos." As the Nile's floodwaters retreated each year, Karnak's mound appeared to rise from the river itself -- a living symbol of creation and renewal.
With permission to study the full floodplain of the Luxor region, the research team plans to continue exploring nearby sites to better understand how the sacred landscapes of ancient Thebes were shaped by both nature and human ingenuity.